worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theor

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subject is sociology

worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theories that we have learned in the class. The assignment requires you to process and apply the knowledge you have been learning in the course to critically analyze your own life experiences by focusing in on and displaying your personal experiences as they relate to the course content from the topics brought up in Chapters 1: Introduction, Chapters 3: Culture, and Chapters 5: Socialization. Taking a sociological perspective to analyze your life will require you to consider a wide variety of various external social factors that have influenced your life in a profound way. Important points to follow:• First, brainstorm topics or concepts from each of the three chapters above that you would like to discuss in the essay. Then, search for relevant examples from your personal life that highlight these concepts. • You may use one single experience in your life, or one specific story, or select a summary of many experiences or years of your life to highlight different topics; the format is up to you, as long as it highlights your mastery of the course content, is what is important here.• You will be graded on your ability to apply sociological concepts to your own life experiences and explain those connections thoughtfully by using personal examples to explain how the concepts work.• No outside research is permitted for this assignment, it is entirely a personal reflection assignment. You may write about anything within the course materials that interests you, I am not as concerned about the topic, but am grading to see how well you can make critical applications between course content and your own life experiences. • Students will be marked for the overall quality of their writing, clarity, coherence and strength of their content applications, and for the degree to which their essay demonstrates and connects an understanding of the topics they selected from this course. I want to see terms and concepts used in your narrative and explained and broken down in a way that displays your understanding and mastery of these topics.• This is meant to be a fun writing exercise that grounds your academic inquiry in the real world, in our very personal individual life experiences. Please try to have some fun with it and explore sociology in your everyday life! Specific Requirements: • 3 pages • Double Spaced • Size 12 font • Times New Roman font• 1 inch margins all around • Submit in a Word or PDF document • Aim to include around approx. 7-10 sociological concepts, terms or theories from this course in your paper • No title page, just list your name and student number on the top of the first page Grading Rubric: 18-20/20– Response displays exceptional mastery of the course content, applies concepts and terms in an insightful, advanced and thoughtful manner. Essay is well-written in direct and clear language, well-organized and structured, and the response makes exceptional use of examples from their own life and course materials in a thoughtful and analytical manner. 14-17/20– Response displays a solid mastery of subject and strong writing skills. It is organized and incorporates concepts from our course materials, but could be improved with further analytical argumentation and application to ones’ own life. 10-13/20 – Response displays some familiarity with course materials, but significant work is needed in organization, structure, writing style, and overall refinement, content development, clarity of argument and incorporation of course materials. 0-9/20 – Response does not meet the basic guidelines of the assignment. The essay is underdeveloped, written communication needs significant work for clarity, coherence, organization and grammar, and the response fails to incorporate concepts or examples from the course materials into their essay.

worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theor
History of Modern Sociology History of Modern Sociology Several events and revolutions that took place in the 18th century had a profound influence on the origins of sociology • The Enlightenment (1650 -1800) • American and French Revolutions • Industrial Revolution • Urbanization Enlightenment • The Enlightenment: • Produced an intellectual revolution in how people thought about social change, progress, and critical thinking • Emphasized individualism, reason, skepticism • Separation of Church and State • Liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government Enlightenment • The optimistic views of the philosophes and other social thinkers regarding progress and equal opportunity (at least for some people) became part of the impetus for political and economic revolutions, first in America and then in France. • The Enlightenment thinkers had emphasized a sense of common purpose and hope for human progress • The French Revolution and its aftermath replaced these ideals with discord and overt conflict. History of Sociology • Historically, the time was ripe for such thoughts because the Age of Enlightenment had produced a belief in reason and humanity’s ability to perfect itself • Early social thinkers — such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Herbert Spencer, and Émile Durkheim — were interested in analyzing social order and stability, and many of their ideas had a dramatic influence on modern sociology History of Modern Sociology • Natural scientists had been using reason , or rational thinking , to discover the laws of physics and the movement of the planets. • Social thinkers began to believe that by applying the methods developed by the natural sciences, they might discover the laws of human behaviour and apply these laws to solve social problems. History of Modern Sociology • Industrialization: The process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries. • 19 th and early 20 th centuries • This process first occurred during the Industrial Revolution in Britain between 1760 and 1850 and was soon repeated throughout Western Europe. Industrialization • By the mid -19th century, industrialization was well under way in Canada and the United States • Massive economic, technological, and social changes occurred as machine technology and the factory system shifted the economic base of these nations from agriculture to manufacturing. Industrialization • A new social class of industrialists emerged in textiles, iron smelting, and related industries. • Many people who had laboured on the land were forced to leave their tightly knit rural communities and sacrifice well -defined social relationships to seek employment as factory workers in the emerging cities, which became the centres of industrial work. History of Modern Sociology • Industrialization brought a massive systematic shift to the economic base of society from agriculture to manufacturing • Required rural communities to relocate to find waged employment in factories • Loss of skill, identity, massive shift in history History of Modern Sociology • Urbanization: The process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas • Many people moved from being producers to being consumers • Emergence of New Social Problems: inadequate housing, crowding, unsanitary conditions, poverty, pollution, and crime Urbanization/Industrialization • Urbanization accompanied modernization and the rapid process of industrialization • Although cities existed long before the Industrial Revolution, the development of the factory system led to a rapid increase in both the number of cities and the size of their populations. • People from diverse backgrounds worked together in the same factory Industrialization • At the same time, many people shifted from being producers to being consumers. For example, families living in the cities had to buy food with their wages because they could no longer grow their own crops to consume or to barter for other resources. • Similarly, people had to pay rent for their lodging because they could no longer exchange their services for shelter Industrialization • Wages were so low that entire families — including young children — were forced to work, often under hazardous conditions and with no job security. • As these conditions became more visible, a new breed of social thinkers turned its attention to trying to understand why and how society was changing. • For ex. Marx Miners and Factory Workers • Early factory workers had unsafe working conditions, little to no rights, breaks, or any job security, many workers died due to unsafe conditions • This widespread change led to observations about the exploitation of people, which began the attempt to change and gain workers rights • Still highly dangerous, low paid work around the entire world • Our current system of resource use relies on exploitation of others Industrialization • Urbanization • Example of Paris, Vienna (Haussmann) • “Fin -de -siecle Vienna” by Carl Schorske Paris Pre – Haussmann Paris Post – Haussmann Pre – industrial Europe Pre – industrial Europe Invention of Schools Railways and Mass Travel Development of Mass Cities Changes in Social Space • The emergence of the Parisian “Flaneur” meaning Idler, lounger, people -watcher Georg Simmel • German sociologist studied the impacts of urbanization on mental health • He found the urban lifestyle to be alienating and relentless • City dwellers, in an effort to limit the overwhelming stimulation of the city, will restrict their contact with others to cope • This leads to isolation and fragmentation, decreased social interaction and fewer shared experiences Industrial revolution brought: • Jobs, a revolutionary shift of work and economy • Cities and mass urbanization • Shift in gender roles • Loss of communities and social support • Time and regulation of individuals • Much Illnesses (rapid urbanization, lack of sanitary waste disposal systems and clean water, esp. In Paris) • Schools (factory workers) A Culture of Time and Space:
worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theor
Introduction to Sociology Introduction to Sociology Sociology …What is it? • Sociology is a social science • Sociology shares common interests with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, philosophy, social work, economics, history, and political science • However, sociology is unique and does distinguish itself from other disciplines through its history, distinct vocabulary, and set of tools Introduction to Sociology Introduction to Sociology Sociology …What is it?  The systematic study of human society and social interaction  “the social science that studies the development, structure, and functioning of human society”  Applies theoretical perspectives and research methods to explore and examine social behaviour  Sociology is difficult to define. It is more productive to explain what sociology does than what it is Introduction to Sociology • Goal of Sociology: “To systematically study and analyze the various elements that constitute a society’s structure and the relationships among these elements” • Sociologists strive to use scientific standards of research to study society, but can use myths as a starting point in beginning a study • Sociologists use systematic research techniques and methods to investigate and present findings Introduction to Sociology • Sociology involves looking for and looking at social patterns in • Social variables (age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and so on) • Social institutions (education, religion, family) • Social interactions Why Study Sociology? • It is useful to study sociology to achieve a greater understanding of: • The social world (social practices, attitudes, institutions) • Yourself (how you relate to social patterns) • Others in a multicultural and diverse Canada • Nations and their institutions Introduction to Sociology Social Inquiry begins with • Observation (culture, behaviours, inequalities, social trends, patterns, movements) • U nderstanding • Research/testing • Noting patterns • Identifying issues/social problems • Identified areas for change and improvement Introduction to Sociology • Society : “group of people within a limited territory who share a common set of behaviours, beliefs, values, material objects (together referred to as culture), and social institutions that exist as a coherent system.” • Really, a society is made up of individuals who participate in, create and change it • Society is not an abstract notion Introduction to Sociology • Individuals create society, yet society also creates us • Sociology attempts to understand the social world, how individuals shape it, and how it shapes individuals • Our current social climate is hyper -individualized and places great emphasis on individual values, opinions, beliefs, personal motivations, and feelings. • As inherently social beings, we all live in societies and interact with others on a daily basis, making the study of society relevant to everyone Introduction to Sociology • We like to think we are individuals. • Yet, look around at your surroundings and observe how similar we actually are. • Examples: clothing, career goals, pathway to reach that goal, foods, lifestyles, speech, body language, behaviours, etc. • Are our individual choices really our own? • Human behaviour cannot be fully explained by analyzing individual psychology Introduction to Sociology • Who taught you how to behave in public settings? • Why did you chose to buy and wear the clothing that you are wearing today? • When you chat with friends and strangers, how do you know the boundaries of physical proximity, tone of voice, body languages, etc? Introduction to Sociology • We are deeply affected, influenced, and shaped by those around us, both close and far • We may not have as much individuality as we would like to think • We are products of our social surroundings Introduction to Sociology • Social rules are not often usually taught to us explicitly • We learn social rules of behaviour ( norms ) by observing and internalizing the culture around us, imitating the accepted behaviours that we see • When someone violates the expectations we have in our society, that is often when they become obvious Introduction to Sociology • Our society teaches us to look inwards at ourselves when problems arise, rather than looking outward at the social conditions • Ex. If we apply and don’t get a job, we tend to blame ourselves rather than discriminatory hiring practices, corporate globalization, policies, etc. The Sociological Imagination Reflective Writing Reflect on the following questions: • How have I gotten to where I am today? • What people or groups have influenced where you are today, your goals in life, your interests? • Why have you pursued to develop certain skills over others? • Why do you value what you value? • Why are you pursuing an education? • What limitations do you face and why do you think that you face them? Introduction to Sociology • Sociologist Peter Berger : Sociology helps us understand that, “things are not what they seem” • i.e. Sociology can provide new ways of understanding and approaching problems and making decisions in everyday life • Sociology may change you for ever, you may always see the world in a different way after taking a sociology class The Sociological Imagination • Term coined by American Sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916 – 1962) • “the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.” • Seeing the link between personal troubles and public issues The Sociological Imagination • Personal troubles: “private problems of individuals and the networks of people with whom they associate regularly” • Can be solved by the individual themselves • Credit card debts, personal “troubles” like homelessness or unemployment on a small scale The Sociological Imagination • Public Issues : “are problems that affect large numbers of people and often require solutions at the societal level” • Systemic unemployment, vast homelessness, illnesses, etc • Display larger patterns beyond the control of an individual’s power or ability The Sociological Imagination • The sociological imagination helps us distinguish between personal troubles and public issues and to see and understand how personal troubles may be related to public issues. • Understanding microlevel issues by looking at the macro level • Society, not the individual is the primary focus • The sociological imagination allows us to understand individuals’ circumstances as shaped by social forces • The sociological imagination helps us to understand the connections between the political and the personal. In many ways, these are interlinked The Sociological Imagination • The sociological perspective: “the special point of view sociology that sees general patterns of society in the lives of particular people” • Seeing the general in the particular • Seeing the strange in the familiar • Seeing society in everyday life The Sociological Imagination • Applying the sociological perspective allows us to: • Assess the truth behind “common sense” understandings and assumptions • Helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives • Empowers us to be active participants in our society • Helps us live in a diverse world The Sociological Imagination • Society is the main cause of poverty and other social problems (not biology, personal failure) • Sociological imagination turns personal problems into public issues • Is the key to bringing people together to create the change needed in society Discussion & Reflection • As Mills sees it, how are personal troubles different from public issues? • Living in Canada, why do we often blame ourselves for the personal problems we face? • How can using the sociological imagination give us power to change the world? • How can the sociological imagination/perspective help us understand that society shapes our individual lives? • Homelessness: • What are some of the “common sense” assumptions that people make about homelessness in Canadian society and what do we see when we look at the problem from a sociological perspective? Introduction to Sociology • Why study sociology?  helps us gain a better understanding of our selves and our social world  enables us to see how behaviour is largely shaped by the groups to which we belong and by the society in which we live  will help you develop an understanding of those around you  can provide a global perspective  It helps us understand how socializing influences shape our opinions  It allows us to challenge perceptions such as stereotypes What can you do with sociology? Introduction to Sociology Sociological research is highly valuable and used by: • Government agencies (policy makers) • Educational Institutions • Health Care Institutions and Practicioners • Human Services (social work, counselling, therapy, etc) • Businesses (marketing, HR -Labour Relations, advertising) • Communications (journalism, social media, public relations, community engagement) 4 different kinds of Sociology: Public, Professional, Critical & Policy sociology • Professional Sociology : academic audience, professionals, scholars • Critical Sociology : acts at the “conscience of professional sociology” by reminding professional sociologists of its values and guiding questions, with the aim to make sure sight of shared goals aren’t lost to academia 4 different kinds of Sociology: Public, Professional, Critical & Policy sociology • Policy Sociology: aims to conduct research for governments and corporations to develop laws, policies, regulations, rules, plans, etc. • Public Sociology : Addresses the public, those outside of academia and politics, aiming to make research readable and understood but the general population That’s all for today! • Thanks for paying attention  Discourse • Is a conceptual framework for understanding and thinking of a problem, issue or topic • Is created through common assumptions, vocabulary, rules, logic etc.
worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theor
Culture Key Terms • Culture • Material Culture • Non -material Culture • Counterculture • Cultural Capital • Economic Capital • Social Capital • Cultural Relativism • Dominant Culture • Ethnocentrism • Reverse Ethnocentrism • High Culture • Popular Culture • Subculture • Symbol • Values • Culture Shock • Culture Lag • Culture Change • Sapir -Whorf Hypothesis • Language • Symbolic Capital The Importance of Culture • Culture is essential for our individual survival and for our communication with other people. • We learn about culture through interaction, observation, and imitation in order to be part of a group. • A system of rule making is part of every known society. Nature and Nurture • There is a contrast between nature (with the use of instinct to live as being unlearned and biologically determined) and nurture (our social environment). • Human life is an intricate link between nature and nurture. The Importance of Culture • Culture may also be seen as a ‘tool kit’ of symbols, stories, rituals, and world views, which people may use in varying configurations to solve different kinds of problems. • We as free agents ‘choose’ various tools to accomplish social or personal goals. Material Culture • Material culture: All the physical or tangible creations that members of a society make, use, and share. Nonmaterial culture • A component of culture that consists of the abstract or intangible human creations of society — such as attitudes, beliefs, and values — that influence individuals. Technology • Technology: The knowledge, techniques, and tools that make it possible for people to transform resources into usable forms, and the knowledge and skills required to use them after they have been developed. Technology • Computers • Tools • Clocks • Writing Utensils • Machinery • Motors • Etc … Cultural Universals • Customs and practices that occur across all societies (sports, bodily adornments, feasting). • Their specific forms vary from one group to another and from one time to another within the same group. Culture • Refers to a “system of behaviour, beliefs, knowledge, practices, values, and concrete materials including buildings, tools and sacred items” • Culture is dynamic, fluid, ever changing • Culture will impact: • the language we speak • the way we think about the world • what we believe (is right or wrong) • our traditions and holidays • what we consider important in life • how we dress • our taste in art, fashion, food, architecture and style Culture • The culture we grow up in, feels normal to us • When we travel abroad, we are shocked to see differences • When we engage with tourists in Vancouver, we might be offended by their behaviour, dress, speech, etc. because it reflects different cultural values and norms • Take a moment and write down an example of a time when you have been surprised, annoyed, treated rudely, or shocked by the behaviour of someone, only to realize they are from another culture • If we grow up in multiple cultures, we might have different behavioural patterns or ways of thinking, of solving problems, interacting with people and groups Values • Values: Collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture. • They provide us with the criteria by which we evaluate people, objects, and events. • Value contradiction: Values that conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive. • Ideal culture : the values that we espouse about how we think we should act (e.g., environmentalism) • Actual culture : how we act (e.g., driving large SUVs) Cultural Change • Societies continually experience cultural change at both material and nonmaterial levels. • Changes in technology continue to shape the material culture of society. Culture Change • Factors of change: • Discovery : Learning about something previously unknown or unrecognized. • Invention : Reshaping existing cultural items into a new form. • Diffusion : Transmission of cultural items or social practices from one culture to another. Culture Lag • All parts of a culture do not change at the same pace. • Cultural lag: William Ogburn’s term for a gap between the technical development of a society (material culture) and its moral and legal institutions (nonmaterial culture). Culture Shock • The disorientation that people feel when they encounter cultures radically different from their own. • When people travel to another society, they may not know how to respond to that setting. Canadian Society: Ethnic Origins Canadian Society: Religious Affiliations Ethnocentrism • This is the practice and belief of holding your own culture as the basic standard and superior, by which all other cultures are to be judged • Involves an idea that there is a “right way to do things” and based on the assumption that one’s own way of life is superior to all others. • For example: Beauty standards that are rooted in Western Ideals of beauty • What are some examples of ethnocentrism that you have observed in Canada? Cultural Relativism • This is a way of thinking, understanding and judging other cultures by their own standards, within its proper cultural context • It includes how we understand cultural practices and how we judge those practices • For example: When people behave in ways we might consider rude, inappropriate, hostile or offensive, we strive to understand how their behaviour represents a cultural difference, not an individual failing • It may be used to excuse customs and behaviour that may violate basic human rights. Reverse Ethnocentrism • This takes place when one assumes that a popular culture other than ones’ own culture is better than one’s own culture in some way • Places another culture as an unmatchable standard that sets the standard • For example: In Canada currently, we tend to idealize Northern European Cultural norms, we buy books on how to internalize the “Hygge”, we claim many of our social problems could be solved by applying Nordic models of governance and policy • What are some examples from our own life? Share with a partner? Cultural Globalization • This refers to the increasing expansion of cultural flows around the world • English language emerging as prominent in science, media, medicine, business, the Internet • American media, film, music, celebrities • American corporations: food, technology, cosmetics, furniture, etc. • What are some examples of global culture that you have observed? Dominant Culture • This is the culture of a society that through political and economic power is “able to impose its values, language, and ways of behaving and interpreting behaviour on a given society”. • What is characteristic of Canadian dominant culture? Subculture • Within a culture, multiple subcultures exist • Subcultures represent minority cultures that fall outside of the mainstream, are different from the dominant culture, but not directly in opposition to the mainstream • “A group of people who share a distinctive set of cultural beliefs and behaviours that differ in some significant ways from that of the larger society.” • For example: gamers, foodies, ____ collectors, any kind of sport enthusiast, etc. • What are some examples of subcultures that you can think of? Counter Culture • Countercultures differ from the dominant culture as well, however they do actively oppose or reject certain elements of the dominant culture • “A group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and norms, and seeks alternative lifestyles. “ • What are some examples of countercultures? • Vegans? • Goths/punks/ emos • Hippies • Political Separatists High Culture • This refers to the culture of the elites, who make up a distinct minority and this culture comes to represent prestige • Appreciating high culture usually requires some learning and acquisition of taste • Languages, history, literature, art, dance, music, etc. • In the Western world, High culture is commonly associated with theatre, opera, classical music, ballet, literary classics, artistic films (not movies), a “cultivated palate” for certain foods and alcohol Popular Culture • This is the culture of the majority, especially people who do not hold power in the society, such as: • the working class • less educated groups • If you have some agency over your life and take an active role in shaping culture that they consume such as through choice of fashion, speech, politics or entertainment, we call it pop culture Mass Culture • If you have minimal or no agency in terms of the culture you consume, this is called Mass culture • Instead, big corporations such as Walmart, McDonalds, Disney, Apple, etc. dictate what is available, what we watch, how we spend our money and time, what we think, and what we buy Popular Culture • Three prevalent forms of popular culture are fads, fashions, and leisure activities. • A fad is a temporary but widely copied activity followed enthusiastically by large numbers of people. • What are some fads you have observed recently or in your lifetime? • A fashion is a currently valued style of behaviour , thinking, or appearance that is longer lasting and more widespread than a fad. • What are some examples of this? Activity • How and where do you see evidence of: • dominant culture • high culture • popular culture • mass culture • counterculture • subcultures • Come back and report specifics of what you saw Pierre Bourdieu and Cultural Capital • Cultural capital : non -material lifestyle resources that are linked to and reflect social status. • Example: language use, occupation, education, fashion Economic Capital • Economic capital :material resources with obvious monetary value. • Example: any financial asset, a house, car, investments, companies owned, stocks owned, savings, etc Social Capital • Social capital :non -material resources such as social networks • Example: family friends who are CEO’s Test Your Understanding • Which of the three types of Capital do each of the follow examples represent? Which social class would you associate them with? How do they reflect lifestyle? 1. Mode of transport: Bicycle, public transit or car 2. Stocks, gold, home ownership, savings Vrs . 3. Drink of choice: Wine, beer, whisky, energy drink, green smoothie , mineral water, starbucks , vrs Tim Hortons Vrs . Vrs . 4. Country club membership, family friends with members of parliament, family friends with corner store owners, relationship with lawyers, association in national psychology association Vrs . 5. Construction worker, lawyer, bank manager, professor, high school teacher, retail worker Vrs . 6. Food preferences Vrs . Vrs . 7. Sports & Exercise Vrs . Vrs . Practice • Can you define the difference between social and cultural capital? Symbols • Symbols are any tangible, or intangible, material or non – material objects, such as language, that hold great meaning and representation within a culture • We interpret and categorize the world around us by and through symbols • Symbols provide meaning to the everyday • Culture could not exist without symbols because there would be no shared meanings among people. Canadian Flag • What does it symbolize to you? • What might it symbolize to people who are not a part of our Canadian culture? Lobouton Shoes: What do they symbolize Carhartt: What does this hat symbolize? Starbucks Frappuccino to go, with straw: What does this symbolize to you? Amish Clothing: What does it symbolize, and would you make friends with someone dressing like this? Why? What do our modes of transportation symbolize about us as individuals and our culture? Review • What is culture? • What are cultural universals? • What are the four nonmaterial components of culture common to all societies? • What are the main types of norms? • What are high culture and popular culture?
worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theor
Introduction to Theory Auguste Comte & Positivism • Auguste Comte , French Philosopher, 1798 -1857 • Coined the term, “sociology” from Latin socius (“social, being with others”) and Greek, logos (“the study of ”) • Often called the “Founder of Sociology” • Believed that objective, bias -free knowledge was attainable only through the use of science rather than religion Comte’s “Law of Three Stages” • Theological: knowledge began in this stage, where explanations are based on religion and the supernatural. Kinship is the most prominent unit of society. • Metaphysical: explanations based on abstract philosophical speculation. Kinship replaced by the State, control from small groups to military, the State and the Law. • Scientific/positive : explanations are based on systematic observation, experimentation, comparison, and historical analysis. Industry becomes prominent social unit, scientists become the spiritual leaders replace Priests and philosophers. Positivism • Positivism: A belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry (best through mathematics, statistics, etc) • Highly objective approach, seeks unbiased accounts • Traditional sociology uses positivism • “black and white” thinking • Does not account for “grey” areas, often leaves out feelings, nuances in life • Recent sociology (1960’s on) rejects positivist approaches as lacking in depth and missing vital factors in the social world Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876) • Martineau advocated racial and gender equality. • Analyzed how large -scale social structures influenced the lives of people, particularly women, children, and those who were marginalized by virtue of being criminal, mentally ill, disabled, poor, or alcoholic. Martineau • Sociologist Martineau translated Comte’s work into English & wrote over 6,000 articles herself • One of the only early female sociologists, who gave attention to the experiences of women, children, and groups on the fringes of society who were usually outcast from academic study • Studied American and British society • Worked on race and ethnicity, immigration, politics, religion and slavery Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903, England) • Spencer constructed an evolutionary perspective on social order and social change. • Societies developed through a process of “struggle” (for existence) and “fitness” (for survival), which he referred to as the “ survival of the fittest.” Spencer • Used to justify the repression and neglect of minority groups in the late 19th century and beyond (known as scientific racism). • Social Darwinism: the belief that those species of animals (including human beings) best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out. Spencer • Spencer opposed social reform that might interfere with the natural selection process and damage society by favouring its least worthy members • This would mean no welfare, inaccessible health care, no charity, and would create an entirely self -serving society Spencer • Spencer suffered a nervous breakdown before continuing to write • A friend, Beatrice Webb (One of the founders of the London School of Economics) said of him: “poisoned by morphia and self -absorption, and contorted by that strangely crude vision of human life as a series of hard bargains….in his last years to be stumbling in total darkness, hurting himself and then crying aloud in his lonely distress, clinging to his dogmas but without confident faith — with an almost despairing and defiant pride of intellect” • Talcott Parsons pronounced that “Spencer is dead” in regards to his influence in sociology Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917, France) • Durkheim is a crucial figure in the development of sociology as an academic discipline. • Is considered the founding figure of the functionalist theoretical tradition. • First sociologist in France to hold an academic position Durkheim • Underlying ideology similar with Herbert Spencer • Focus on function and structure • Evolutionary processes in society • Modern Industrial Societies produce pathologies • Durkheim differs from Spencer in that the solution should not be in less social regulation or government intervention, but rather Durkheim believed that society itself was the key influence on individuals • “we should not, as does Spencer, present social life as the mere resultant on individual natures alone, since, on the contrary, it is rather the latter that emerges from the former.” • Promoted the scientific approach to examining social facts that lie outside individuals. • One of Durkheim’s most important contributions to sociology: the idea that societies are built on social facts. • Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person. • Social facts allow sociologists to examine larger social forms rather than focusing on individuals Social Facts Social Facts • 3 characteristics of social facts: • 1) developed prior to and separate from any individual • 2) can be seen as a characteristic of any specific group • 3) it involves a constraining force that pushes individuals to act a certain way • Durkheim believed that social facts must be explained by other social facts — by reference to the social structure rather than to individual attributes. Durkheim • People are the product of their social environment • Human potential limited by society, not biology • Living during a time of rapid change of industrialization and urbanization, and in a post -religious France, he was concerned with social order and social stability • His main recurring question was: “How do societies manage to hold together?” Durkheim • Durkheim’s answer: • Preindustrial societies held together by strong traditions and by member’s shared moral beliefs and values (Mechanical Solidarity ) • With industrialization, diverse and specialized economic activity became the basis of the social bond because people became interdependent, and now rely on exchange ( Organic Solidarity ) • For example: we ask each other: “what do you do?” rather than, “what are you interested in?”, “what are your hobbies?”, “What kind of a person are you?” Durkheim • We define ourselves by our work, we can live in a modern world without relying on our neighbour • For example: we live apart from groups, obtain our food from anonymous sources, our access to water requires no work from us, we can be self -sufficient with money • But what have we lost in that process? Durkheim • Observed that rapid social change and more specialized division of labour produced strains on society • These strains broke down traditional organization, values, authority and dramatically increases anomie Anomie Durkheim coined the term anomie: “a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and a sense of purpose in society.” • Social norms are weak or come into conflict with one another. • As traditional norms and relations break down, social control declines. • People feel less tied to each other. • Deviant behaviour increases. Durkheim and Social Facts • In his book Suicide (1897), Durkheim treated suicide as a social fact • Durkheim found that certain groups were more likely to commit suicide: military officers, Protestants, and unmarried people • He found a correlation between suicide and the degree of connection and commitment of individuals to society • Those with strong dedication were more likely to commit suicide • Having a too weak connection to society (integration) could produce suicide as well Durkheim • Durkheim studied suicide rates between Catholics and Protestants, to classify four types of suicide that result from too high or too low levels of social integration and social regulation Durkheim Critique of Durkheim • Critics maintain that Durkheim’s focus on stability, or the “problem of order,” obscures the subjective meaning that individuals give to society. • There appears to be an overemphasis on structure and a neglect of agency in his work. Durkheim • Considered “the crucial figure in the development of sociology as an academic discipline and as one of the deepest roots of the sociological imagination” • Major contribution of viewing social facts that lie outside of the individual • Influenced structuralist and postmodern schools of thought Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) • Marx analyzed the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. • Was a German economist and philosopher from the city of Trier, Germany • Analyzed society with an economic lens Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895, Germany) • A German philosopher, social scientist, journalist and businessman, whose father owned a large textile factory in Manchester, England • Friedrich Engels founded “Marxist” theory together with Karl Marx • Engels did a great deal of writing and collaborating with Marx, coauthored, “The Communist Manifesto” • He financially funded an impoverished Marx and his family for his entire life long Karl Marx • Believed that conflict, especially class conflict was necessary to produce social change • Stressed that history was a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces • Highly critical of capitalism , and saw it as the root cause of overwhelming poverty he witnessed in London at the beginning of the industrial revolution Marx’s Classes in Conflict • Bourgeoisie (capitalist class): The class who owns and controls the means of production. They exploit the working class for their labour and pay them a wage far below the value of their labour . • Means of production: the lands, factories, tools, and money for investment that forms the economic basis of a society. • Proletariat (working class): Must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. Marx • Class conflict: The struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. • Alienation: Exploited workers feel a sense of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from themselves. Marx • Believed that society should not just be studied but should also be changed because the status quo is oppressive to most members of society. • Predicted that a revolution would result from workers becoming aware of their alienation and thus overthrowing the capitalists to establish a free and classless society (the exact opposite has happened globally) • Weber held that sociology should be value -free — conducted scientifically, excluding the researcher’s personal values and economic interests. • Emphasized the necessity of understanding how others see the world • Sociologists should employ verstehen (German for “understanding”) to see the world as others do. • Important insights on the process of rationalization, bureaucracy, religion, and many other topics. • Was more aware of women’s issues than were many of the scholars of his day. (perhaps because of his brilliant scholar wife, Marianne Weber who wrote on women’s issues.) Max Weber (1864 – 1920) • Canada, 1887 -1964, the first professional, institutionalized Canadian Sociologist! • He brought the first Sociology Department to a Canadian University (McGill) in 1922 facing much opposition for sociology’s reputation for being too Left -wing politically • The next Sociology department to open at a Canadian University did not take place until 1961 Carl Addington Dawson • He focused on the Social Gospel movement: which was a movement of trained Christian ministers “applying the Christian principles of human welfare to the treatment of social, medical, and psychological ills brought on by industrialization and unregulated capitalism” Carl Addington Dawson • The Social Gospel movement resulted in the Social Service Council of Canada (1912), where our nation’s first sociological surveys were carried out • Reflects the history of modern Christians founding many of our current social institutions such as the medical field (hospitals), education (schools), and social services (charities, welfare, housing, food banks, etc. Carl Addington Dawson • To summarize, the Social Gospel aimed to bring the ideals and values of Christianity (gender and racial equality, social equality (equal wealth distribution) human rights, charity, hospitality, welcoming refugees, etc ) to the mainstream society at a time when Canada had racist and discriminatory laws such as the Head Tax as the social norm, and attempted preventing certain racial groups from entering Canada. Carl Addington Dawson • Dawson’s interest in the Social Gospel not surprisingly led him to want to bring social change through Social Work • He is also credited with writing the first Canadian sociology textbook in 1929 which was met with great success and adopted in 150 Universities across North America Carl Addington Dawson Macro & Micro • Macrosociology • Focuses on the “big picture” of society and its institutions • E.g., structural functionalism, conflict theory, feminist theory, postmodern theory • Microsociology • Focuses on the plans, motivations, and actions of individuals and small groups • E.g., symbolic interactionism Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives • Contemporary sociologists have various views on society • Sociologists endeavour to create theories to understand these views • Theories : A set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives • Perspective: an overall approach to or viewpoint on some subject • How you view and make sense of the world, it’s issues, problems, etc. Summary of Theories • Structural Functionalism: • Comte (Theological, Metaphysical, Scientific Stages) • Herbert Spencer (survival of the fittest) • Talcott Parsons (influenced by Weber and Durkheim) • Merton (introduces deviance studies) Structural Functionalism • Looks at society from a macro level • Focuses on social structures that shape society (institutions) • Concerned with social structure , and social functions • Organic analogy compares society to a body, with different parts contributing to its healthy functioning • Identifies the various structures of society (e.g., the family), and describes the functions the structure performs to maintain the entire social system and produce social cohesion • Society is seen as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability Structural Functionalism • Functionalist perspective (also called Structural -Functionalism ): is the sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system • Everything in society plays an important role • For example: welfare and poverty provide jobs to the government office workers • Focuses on explaining social stability over conflict and social change Functionalism • Societal consensus : a situation whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs and behavioural expectations • Society is composed of a variety of interrelated parts that keep it functioning and contribute to society’s stability • Society needs all of its majour institutions (family, education, the economy, government, religion) to function Functionalism • If society’s major institutions fail, social problems will result • When change happens too rapidly and it affects social institutions, problems arise (such as increased crime or suicide) Conflict Theories • Including Marxist theory, Feminist theories, Postmodern theory • Key classical figures: Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel contributed significantly to this perspective by focusing on the inevitability of clashes between social groups. • Takes a highly critical stance towards society • Concerned with power and class struggles • Takes a macro level of analysis • Society is defined by inequality that results in conflict Conflict Theories • Class divisions are a main source of conflict in all large societies and motor of major socio -historical change • Based on four C’s 1. Conflict: exists in all large societies 2. Class: has existed in every society 3. Contestation: functions can be contested by asking “Who does this function best serve?” 4. Change: society either will or should be changed Conflict Perspectives • According to conflict perspectives , groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. • Today, advocates of conflict perspectives view social life as a continuous power struggle among competing social groups. • Everything is seen as a conflict, all problems based in the fundamental conflict in society Conflict Theories • Revolution or political reform is often a goal • Theory should be used to produce social change (critical of positivism) • Exploitation and oppression accompany an unequal division of labour • Human creativity suppressed in capitalism Symbolic Interactionism • George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) (and his students) • Examined socialization, the development of the self, and social roles in the context of human interaction • Herbert Blumer (1900 – 1987) (pupil of Mead) • Coined the term symbolic interaction • Individuals and groups create and maintain social systems through interaction • Social systems (friendship patterns, education, the economy etc ) are “simply by -products of our personal dealings with one another • Social systems are abstractions that do not exist independently of individuals relations and interactions • And later, Charles Cooley (we’ll come back to him) Symbolic Interactionism • The symbolic interaction approach looks at the meaning (the symbolic part) of the daily social interactions of individuals • Focuses on individuals and small groups and their everyday practices and interactions • How individuals interact with each other to create symbolic worlds and interact with each other (for ex. Subgroup, subcultures) • Takes a micro approach, looking at interpersonal interactions • Society is the sum of interactions between individuals and groups Symbolic Interactionism • 2 main focus points: 1) Interaction : communication between people 2) Symbols : the meaning they bring to communication and provide us with understanding • Reality is somewhat subjective, it is acquired and shared through agreed -upon symbols (especially language) • Confusion or conflict results when individuals or groups interact without having shared symbolic meanings Chapter Review • What is sociology and how can it help us understand ourselves and others? • What is the sociological imagination? • What factors contributed to the emergence of sociology as a discipline? • What are the major contributions of the early sociologists (Comte, Martineau, Durkheim, Marx)? • What are the major sociological perspectives?

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